Kitos War or Second Jewish–Roman War Part of the The Roman Empire after 120 CE Date 115–117 Location, Result Roman Empire victory Territorial changes Belligerents / Commanders and leaders Emperor (Andreas); Artemio; Julian and Pappus Casualties and losses Massive civilian casualties with some areas utterly annihilated, 460,000+ Roman citizens (largely ) killed in Cyrene and Cyprus alone and unknown numbers in, and the rest of the Jewish communities of Cyprus, Cyrene and possibly others completely depopulated and permanently expelled to the eastern edges of the Empire (mainly ). Major conflicts • • • The Kitos War (115–117;: מרד הגלויות‎: mered ha'galuyot or mered ha'tfutzot [מרד התפוצות]; translation: rebellion of the diaspora.: Tumultus Iudaicus) occurred during the period of the, 66–136. While the majority of the were fighting on the eastern border of the, major uprisings by ethnic in, and spiraled out of control, resulting in a widespread slaughter of left behind Roman garrisons and Roman citizens by Jewish rebels. Some of the areas with the heaviest massacres were left so utterly annihilated that others were made to settle these areas to prevent the absence of any remaining presence. The rebellions were finally crushed by forces, chiefly by the Roman general, whose later gave the conflict its title, as 'Kitos' is a later corruption of Quietus. Main article: Tension between the mounted over the course of the 1st century CE, gradually escalating with various violent events, mainly throughout (Iudaea), where parts of the Judean population occasionally erupted into violent insurrections against the.

Several incidents also occurred in other parts of the Roman Empire, most notable the, targeting the large in the province of Egypt. The escalation of tensions finally erupted as the, which began in the year 66 CE. It erupted initially due to Greek and Jewish religious tensions, but later escalated due to and attacks upon Roman citizens. The Roman military garrison of Judea was quickly overrun by rebels and the pro-Roman king fled, together with Roman officials to., the of, brought the Syrian army, based on, reinforced by auxiliary troops, to restore order and quell the revolt. The legion, however, was ambushed and defeated by Jewish rebels at the, a result that shocked the Roman leadership. The Roman command of the revolt's suppression was then handed to general and his son, who assembled four legions and began advancing through the country, starting with Galilee, in the year 67 CE. The revolt ended when under Titus the center of rebel resistance in Jerusalem in the year 70 CE, and defeated the remaining Jewish strongholds later on.

Revolt and warfare [ ] In 115, the emperor was in command of the eastern campaign against the. The Roman invasion had been prompted by the imposition of a pro-Parthian king on the after a Parthian invasion of that land.

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This encroachment on the traditional sphere of influence of the Roman Empire — the two empires had shared over Armenia since the time of Nero some 50 years earlier — could only lead to war. As Trajan's army advanced victoriously through Mesopotamia, Jewish rebels in its rear began attacking the small garrisons left behind. A revolt in far off soon spread to Egypt and then Cyprus, inciting revolt in.

A widespread uprising centered at threatened grain supplies from Egypt to the front. The Jewish insurrection swiftly spread to the recently conquered provinces. Cities with substantial Jewish populations –,,, – joined the rebellion and slaughtered their small Roman garrisons. Cyrenaica [ ] In Cyrenaica, the rebels were led by one or Andreas, who called himself 'king' (according to ). His group destroyed many temples, including those to,,,, and, as well as the civil structures that were symbols of Rome, including the, the, and the. The 4th century Christian historian records that the violence so depopulated the province of Cyrenaica that new colonies had to be established by Hadrian: 'The Jews.

Waged war on the inhabitants throughout Libya in the most savage fashion, and to such an extent was the country wasted that, its cultivators having been slain, its land would have remained utterly depopulated, had not the Emperor Hadrian gathered settlers from other places and sent them thither, for the inhabitants had been wiped out.' States of Jewish insurrectionaries: 'Meanwhile the Jews in the region of Cyrene had put one Andreas at their head and were destroying both the Romans and the Greeks. They would cook their flesh, make belts for themselves of their entrails, anoint themselves with their blood, and wear their skins for clothing. Many they sawed in two, from the head downwards. Others they would give to wild beasts and force still others to fight as gladiators. In all, consequently, two hundred and twenty thousand perished.

In Egypt, also, they performed many similar deeds, and in Cyprus under the leadership of Artemio. There, likewise, two hundred and forty thousand perished. For this reason no Jew may set foot in that land, but even if one of them is driven upon the island by force of the wind, he is put to death.

Various persons took part in subduing these Jews, one being Lusius, who was sent by Trajan.' The original 1906 cited this about the Cyrene massacres: 'By this outbreak was depopulated to such an extent that a few years later new colonies had to be established there (Eusebius, 'Chronicle' from the Armenian, fourteenth year of Hadrian). Bishop, a native of Cyrene in the beginning of the fifth century, speaks of the devastations wrought by the Jews ('Do Regno,' p. 2).' The acknowledges Dio Cassius's importance as a source, though believes his accounts of the actions at Cyrene and on Cyprus may have been embellished: 'For an account of the Jewish war under Trajan and Hadrian Dion is the most important source (lxviii. 12–14), though his descriptions of the cruelties perpetrated by the Jews at Cyrene and on the island of Cyprus are probably exaggerated.' Egypt [ ] Then, leader of rebel Jews, moved towards, entered the city, which had been abandoned by the Roman troops in Egypt under the leadership of governor, and set fire to the city.

The Egyptian temples and the tomb of were destroyed. Jewish rebels reportedly also prevailed in a battle at in 116, as indicated in a papyrus. Trajan sent new troops under the praefectus praetorio, but Egypt and Cyrenaica were pacified only in autumn 117. Cyprus [ ] In a Jewish band under a leader named took control of the island, killing tens of thousands of Cypriot Greek civilians. The Cypriot Jews participated in the great uprising against the Romans under (117), and massacred 240,000 Greeks.

A Roman army was dispatched to the island, soon reconquering the capital. After the revolt had been fully defeated, laws were created forbidding any Jews to live on the island. Mesopotamia [ ] A new revolt sprang up in, while was in the. Trajan reconquered (Nusaybin in Turkey), the capital of, and (Iraq), each of which housed large Jewish communities. A pro-Roman son of the Parthian king, named, had been brought on the expedition as part of the emperor's entourage. Trajan had him crowned in Ctesiphon as king of the Parthians. 'Trajan, fearing that the Parthians, too, might begin a revolt, desired to give them a king of their own.

Accordingly, when he came to Ctesiphon, he called together in a great plain all the Romans and likewise all the Parthians that were there at the time; then he mounted a lofty platform, and after describing in grandiloquent language what he had accomplished, he appointed Parthamaspates king over the Parthians and set the diadem upon his head.' (Dio Cassius). With this done, Trajan moved north to take personal command of the ongoing siege of.

The siege continued throughout the summer of 117, but the years of constant campaigning in the baking eastern heat had taken their toll on Trajan, who suffered a heatstroke. He decided to begin the long journey back to Rome in order to recover.

Sailing from Seleucia, the emperor's health deteriorated rapidly. He was taken ashore at Selinus in Cilicia, where he died, and his successor,, assumed the reins of government in 118.

See also: Jewish leader fled to Judea. Pursued him and sentenced to death the brothers Julian and Pappus, who had been key leaders in the rebellion. Lusius Quietus, the conqueror of the Jews of Mesopotamia, was now in command of the Roman army in Judea, and laid siege to, where the rebel Jews had gathered under the leadership of Julian and Pappus. The distress became so great that the patriarch Rabban, who was shut up there and died soon afterwards, permitted fasting even on Ḥanukkah. Other rabbis condemned this measure. Lydda was next taken and many of the rebellious Jews were executed; the 'slain of Lydda' are often mentioned in words of reverential praise in the Talmud. Rebel leaders Pappus and Julian were among those executed by the Romans in the same year.

Lusius Quietus, whom the Emperor Trajan had held in high regard and who had served Rome so well, was quietly stripped of his command once Hadrian had secured the Imperial title. He was murdered in unknown circumstances in the summer of 118, possibly by the orders of Hadrian. Hadrian took the unpopular, but far-sighted, decision to end the war, abandoning much of Trajan's eastern conquests and stabilising the eastern borders. Although he abandoned the erstwhile province of Mesopotamia, he installed Parthamaspates – who had been ejected from Ctesiphon by the returning Osroes – as king of a restored. For a century Osroene would retain a precarious independence as a buffer state, sandwiched between the two empires.

The situation in Judea remained tense for the Romans, who were obliged under Hadrian to permanently move the into in Judea. Aftermath [ ]. Main article: Further developments occurred in Judea Province in the year 130, when Emperor Hadrian visited the Eastern Mediterranean and, according to Cassius Dio, made the decision to rebuild the city of Jerusalem as the Roman city of, derived from his own name. The decision, together with Hadrian's other sanctions against the Jews, was allegedly one of the reasons for the eruption of the 132 — an extremely violent uprising. The rebellion ended with a ban upon the Jewish faith across the Roman Empire, which was lifted in 138, upon Hadrian's death. See also [ ] • • • References [ ].

• • • The history of,, dates back many millennia. Carvings in the feature pictorial writings believed to date to at least the era around 5,000 BC, indicating the presence of a prehistoric civilisation or settlement in this region. From as early as 3000 BC, Chera nadu, currently known as Kerala had established itself as a major centre. Keralam, the then Chera nadu had direct contact across the with all the major and ports as well those of the. The spice trade between Kerala and much of the world was one of the main drivers of the world economy.

For much of history, ports in Kerala were the busiest () among all trade and travel routes in the history of the world. The word Kerala is first recorded (as Keralaputra) in a 3rd-century BC rock inscription (Rock Edict 2) left by the (274–237 BC). The Land of Keralaputra was one of the five independent kingdoms in southern India during Ashoka's time, the others being,, Tamiraparani and. The Cheras collapsed after repeated attacks from the neighboring and. In the 8th century, was born in central Kerala. He travelled extensively across the establishing institutions of philosophy. Contact with Europeans after the arrival of in 1498 gave rise to struggles between colonial and native interests.

The state of Keralam was created in 1956 from the former state of, the of, and the of. Contents • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • Reference in Old testament [ ] Many historians locate port cities and mentioned in old testament in ancient Kerala. Near is believed to be Ophir mentioned in old testament bible. Similarly, another ancient port city, is believed to be Tarshish. Kerala in Hindu mythology [ ] Many of the mythological stories in Kerala are common with the rest of India coming from the same Vedic Storytelling History. Kerala remained of pure Tamil culture, untill Sanskrit mixed with it late in the 7 century CE and developed as Malayalam further. Mahabali [ ] Perhaps the most famous festival of Kerala,, is deeply rooted in Kerala traditions.

Onam is associated with the legendary king, who according to the Hindu, ruled the Earth and several other planetary systems from Kerala. His entire kingdom was then a land of immense prosperity and happiness.

However, he was granted rule over one of the netherworld ( ) planets called Sutala, by Vamana, the fifth Avatar (earthly incarnation) of Lord. Onam is celebrated in Kerala with respect to Maveli Thampuran of and. [ ] Other texts [ ] The oldest of all the Puranas, the, sets the story of the Matsya Avatar (fish incarnation) of Lord, in the of Dravida, which lie in Kerala and Tamil Nadu. The earliest Sanskrit text to mention Kerala by name is the of the.

It is also mentioned in both the and the Parasurama [ ]. Surrounded by settlers, commanding to part the seas and reveal Kerala.

There are myths dealing with the origins of Kerala geographically and culturally. One such myth is the retrieval of Kerala from the sea, by Parasurama, a warrior sage. It proclaims that, an of, threw his battle axe into the sea. As a result, the land of Kerala arose, and thus was reclaimed from the waters. He was the sixth of the ten avatars (incarnations) of Vishnu. The word Parasu means 'axe' in Sanskrit and therefore the name Parasurama means 'Ram with Axe. In Treta yuga, Parasurama retrieved the land submerged under the ocean from - the God of the Oceans and Bhumidevi - Goddess of Earth.

From he reached and threw his axe northward across the ocean. The place where the axe landed was Kerala. It was 160 katam (an old measure) of land lying between Gokarnam and Kanyakumari.

Puranas say that it was Parasurama who planted the Brahmins and Nayakas in 64 regions of Kerala from Chera and Pandya regions. According to the puranas, Kerala is also known as Parasurama Kshetram, i.e., 'The Land of Parasurama', as the land was reclaimed from sea by him. Prehistory [ ]. A erected by Neolithic people in.

Archaeological studies have identified many, Neolithic and sites in Kerala. These findings have been classified into Laterite rock-cut caves ( Chenkallara), Hood stones ( Kudakkallu), Hat stones ( Toppikallu), Dolmenoid cists ( Kalvrtham), Urn burials ( Nannangadi) and Menhirs ( Pulachikallu). The studies point to the indigenous development of the ancient Kerala society and its culture beginning from the age, and its continuity through Mesolithic, Neolithic and Megalithic ages. However, foreign cultural contacts have assisted this cultural formation.

The studies suggest possible relationship with during the late and early. Archaeological findings include of the era in the area.

They are locally known as 'muniyara', derived from muni ( or ) and ara (dolmen). Rock engravings in the in are thought to date from the early to late Neolithic eras around 5000 BCE. Historian M.R. Raghava Varier of the Kerala state archaeology department identified a sign of “a man with jar cup” in the engravings, which is the most distinct motif of the Indus valley civilisation. Spice trade (3000 BC - 1000 BC) [ ] Kerala was a major spice exporter as early as 3000 BCE, according to. Its fame as the land of spices attracted ancient, and to in the 3r and 2nd millennia BCE. And were also successful in establishing their prominence in the Kerala trade during this early period.

Muziris in the Tabula Peutingeriana, an itinerarium showing the road network in the Roman Empire. According to Sumerian records and Kerala still referred to as the 'Garden of Spices' or as the 'Spice Garden of India'. Kerala's spices attracted ancient Babylonians, Assyrians and Egyptians to the Malabar Coast in the 3rd and 2nd millennia BCE. [ ] Arabs and Phoenicians established trade with Kerala during this period. [ ] The Land of Keralaputra was one of the four independent kingdoms in southern India during Ashoka's time, the others being Chola, Pandya, and Satiyaputra. [ ] Scholars [ ] hold that Keralaputra is an alternate name of the Cheras, the first dominant dynasty based in Kerala.

In the last centuries BCE the coast became important to the Greeks and Romans for its spices, especially. The Cheras had trading links with,,,, and the. In foreign-trade circles the region was known as Male or Malabar., Berkarai, and Nelcynda were among the principal ports at that time. The value of Rome's annual trade with the region was estimated at around 50,000,000; contemporary describes Roman ships coming to Muziris in Kerala, laden with gold to exchange for pepper.

One of the earliest western traders to use the monsoon winds to reach Kerala was, around 118 or 166 BCE, under the patronage of, king of the in Egypt. Roman establishments in the port cities of the region, such as a temple of and barracks for garrisoned Roman soldiers, are marked in the; the only surviving map of the Roman. Merchants from West Asia and Southern Europe established coastal posts and settlements in Kerala. The Jewish connection with Chera nadu started in 573 BCE. Arabs also had trade links with Kerala, starting before the 4th century BCE, as Herodotus (484–413 BCE) noted that goods brought by Arabs from Kerala were sold to the Jews at Eden. They intermarried with local people, resulting in formation of the Muslim Mappila community. In the 4th century, some Christians also migrated from Persia and joined the early Syrian Christian community who trace their origins to the evangelistic activity of Thomas the Apostle in the 1st century.

Another Christian migration from middle east to Kerala was of the community. Mappila was an honorific title (Mapillai is a Tamil word for bridegroom, because foreign male partner married to local woman, they have been called Mapillai community) that had been assigned to respected visitors from abroad; Jewish, Syrian Christian, and Muslim immigration account for later names of the respective communities: Juda Mappilas, Nasrani Mappilas, and Muslim Mappilas. According to the legends of these communities, the earliest Churches, Cheraman Juma Masjid (629 CE)—the first mosque of India—and Paradesi Synagogue (1568 CE)—the oldest active synagogue in the Commonwealth of Nations—were built in Kerala by., the Greek Ambassador to the court of Emperor (4th Century BC) mentions in his work Indica on many South Indian States, including Automela (probably Muziris), and a Pandian trade centre. Mentions in his (N.H. 6.26) in Kerala as India's first port of importance.

According to him, Muziris could be reached in 40 days' time from the Red sea ports in coast purely depending on the South West Monsoon winds. Later, the unknown author of the notes that 'both Muziris and are now busy places'. Ancient sources (c. 1000 BC-AD 100) [ ] The works and have many lines which speak of the vessels and the Roman gold that used to come to the Kerala ports in search of and other, which had enormous demand in the West. Especially, one of the earliest surviving pieces of literature to have been composed in ancient Kerala, the is an important source that describes the dynasties of Kerala kings () from the early centuries AD. An important source to understand the ancient history of Kerala is the. Collections of poems like Purananuru, Akananuru, Silappathikaram and Manimekhalai by poets like Paramer, Kapilar, Gautamanar, mamulanar, and Avvaiyar.

The Sangam poems were secular. The poems give us information about the Chera kings like Utiyam, Neducheralathan and Chenkuttawan. Their capital was vanchi (muziris), which was an important trading centre with. A 3rd-century-BC rock inscription by emperor references Kerala as Keralaputra.

Sanskrit scholars of ancient India, (circa 4th century BC) and (circa 2nd century BC), exhibited in their writings a casual familiarity with Kerala's geography. Ancient dynasties (c. 500 BC - AD 500) [ ] The Land of Keralaputra was one of the five independent kingdoms in southern India during Ashoka's time, the others being,, Tamiraparani and. Kerala was governed by several (governors of the region) and the, took the title as the (governor of the area). Which had a trading port sometimes identified in ancient Western sources as (or Neacyndi). The Cheras ruled western, the Cholas ruled in the eastern and the Pandyas in the south-central peninsula.

There were also numerous small vassal kingdoms and city-states called 'Vels'. The Chera kingdom consisted of major part of modern, and and districts of modern. Old Tamil and Sanskrit was the language of the region;,. Their capital was at Vanchi (also known as Vanchimutur).

The location of the historical city Vanchi is generally considered near the ancient port city of in Kerala. However, in Tamil Nadu is also pointed out as the location of the capital city of Cheras. Another view suggests the reign of Cheras from multiple capitals.

There were harbours of Naura near Kannur, Tyndis near Koyilandy, and Bacare near which were also trading with Rome and Palakkad pass (churam) facilitated migration and trade. The contact with Romans might have given rise to small colonies of and Syrian Christians in the chief harbour towns of Kerala. The believe that their ancestors came to the west coast of India as refugees following the destruction of in the first century AD. Are the descendants of the converts of Saint of.

Ancient religions and ethnic groups [ ] and reached Kerala in this early period. As in other parts of, Buddhism and Jainism co-existed with early Dravidian beliefs during the first five centuries. Merchants from West Asia and Southern Europe established coastal posts and settlements in Kerala. Jewish connection with Kerala started as early as 573 BC. Arabs also had trade links with Kerala, possibly started before the 4th century BC, as (484–413 BC) noted that goods brought by Arabs from Kerala were sold to the Jews at Eden.

In the 4th century, some Christians also immigrated from and joined the early community who trace their origins to the evangelistic activity of in the 1st century. Mappila was an honorific title that had been assigned to respected visitors from abroad; and Jewish, Syrian Christian, and Muslim immigration might account for later names of the respective communities:,, and. According to the legends of these, the earliest,, and (AD 1568) in India were built in Kerala.

The combined number of Jews, Christians, and Muslims was relatively small at this early stage. They co-existed harmoniously with each other and with local Hindu society, aided by the commercial benefit from such association. Another notable community arrived from middle east in Kerala is The. A silent revolution was taking place in the social system of the western coast of south India during the last phase of Sangam Age. Towards the end of Sangam age, Brahmins migrated into this region and by about the 8th century, a chain of Brahmin settlements had come up a large number of which were in Central Kerala. The process of Brahminisation or Sanskritisation began. Temples were constructed, community was evolved.

The exponent of (monistic) philosophy lived in the 8th century AD. The whole of Kerala came to be covered by a network of centered settlements. Under their control, these settlements had a large extend of land, number of tenants and the entailing privileges.

With more advanced techniques of cultivation, sociopolitical organisation and a strong sense of solidarity, the Brahmins gradually formed the elite of the society. They succeeded in raising a feudal fighting class and ordered the caste system with numerous graduations of upper, intermediate and lower classes. Early medieval period (c.AD 500-1400) [ ] Second Cheras [ ] Much of history of the region from the 6th to the 8th century is obscure. 800–1102), also known as, was established by, which at its zenith ruled over a territory comprising the whole of modern Kerala and a smaller part of modern Tamil Nadu. During the early part of Kulasekara period, the southern region from to was ruled by, who lost their power in 10th century and thus the region became a part of the Kulasekara empire. During Kulasekhara rule, Kerala witnessed a flourishing period of art, literatute, trade and the of Hinduism. A Keralite identity, distinct from the, became during this period.

For the local administration, the empire was divided into provinces under the rule of Chieftains known as, with each province comprising a number of Desams under the control of chieftains, called as Desavazhis. Adobe Acrobat Reader 9 Professional Pro Crack here. The inhibitions, caused by a series of Chera-Chola wars in the 11th century, resulted in the decline of foreign trade in Kerala ports. Buddhism and Jainism disappeared from the land.

The social system became fractured with internal divisions on the lines of. Finally, the Kulasekhara dynasty was subjugated in 1102 by the combined attack of Later Pandyas and. However, in the 14th century, Ravi Varma Kulashekhara (1299-1314) of the southern was able to establish a short-lived supremacy over southern India.

After his death, in the absence of a strong central power, the state was fractured into about thirty small warring principalities under Nair Chieftains; most powerful of them were the kingdom of in the north, in the south and Kochi in the middle. Rise of Advaita [ ] (AD 789), one of the greatest Indian philosopher, born in in who consolidated the doctrine of. Shankara travelled across the to propagate his philosophy through discourses and debates with other thinkers. He is reputed to have founded four ('monasteries'), which helped in the historical development, revival and spread of Advaita Vedanta of which he is known as the greatest revivalist. Adi Shankara is believed to be the organiser of the monastic order and the founder of the of worship. His works in concern themselves with establishing the doctrine of ().

He also established the importance of monastic life as sanctioned in the Upanishads and Brahma Sutra, in a time when the school established strict ritualism and ridiculed monasticism. Shankara represented his works as elaborating on ideas found in the, and he wrote copious commentaries on the Vedic canon (, principal upanishads and ) in support of his thesis. The main opponent in his work is the school of thought, though he also offers arguments against the views of some other schools like and certain schools of. Kingdom of Venad [ ]. Main article: was a kingdom in the south west tip of Kerala, which acted as a buffer between Cheras and Pandyas.

Until the end of the 11th century, it was a small principality in the. The Ays were the earliest ruling dynasty in southern Kerala, who, at their zenith, ruled over a region from in the south to in the north. Their capital was. A series of attacks by the between the 7th and 8th centuries caused the decline of Ays although the dynasty remained powerful until the beginning of the 10th century.

When Ay power diminished, Venad became the southern most principality of the Invasion of Cholas into Venad caused the destruction of Kollam in 1096. However, the Chera capital,, fell in the subsequent attack, which compelled the Chera king, Rama varma Kulasekara, to shift his capital to Kollam. Thus, Rama Varma Kulasekara, the last emperor of Chera dynasty, is probably the founder of the Venad royal house, and the title of Chera kings, Kulasekara, was thenceforth adopted by the rulers of Venad. The end of Second Chera dynasty in the 12th century marks the independence of the Venad. The Venadu King then also was known as Venadu Mooppil Nayar.

In the second half of the 12th century, two branches of the Ay Dynasty: Thrippappur and Chirava, merged into the Venad family and established the tradition of designating the ruler of Venad as Chirava Moopan and the heir-apparent as Thrippappur Moopan. While Chrirava Moopan had his residence at, the Thrippappur Moopan resided at his palace in Thrippappur, 9 miles (14 km) north of Thiruvananthapuram, and was vested with the authority over the temples of Venad kingdom, especially the. The most powerful kingdom of Kerala during the colonial period,, was developed through the expansion of Venad by Mahahrajah, a member of the Thrippappur branch of the Ay Dynasty who ascended to the throne in the 18th century. Kingdom of Kozhikode [ ] Historical records regarding the origin of the Samoothiri of is obscure. However, its generally agreed that the Samoothiri were originally the rulers of Eralnadu region of the Later Chera Kingdom and were known as the Eradis. Eralnadu province was situated in the northern parts of present-day and was landlocked by the Valluvanad and Polanadu in the west. Legends such as tell the establishment of a local ruling family at, near present-day by two young brothers belonging to the.

The brothers, Manikkan and Vikraman were the most trusted generals in the army of the., a Kerala-based historian, in his book, Calicut: The City of Truth states that the Eradi was a favourite of the last Later Chera king and granted him, as a mark of favor, a small tract of land on the sea-coast in addition to his hereditary possessions (Eralnadu province). Eradis subsequently moved their capital to the coastal marshy lands and established the kingdom of Kozhikode They later assumed the title of Samudrāthiri ('one who has the sea for his border') and continued to rule from Kozhikode. Samoothiri allied with Muslim Arab and Chinese merchants and used most of the wealth from Kozhikode to develop his military power.

They became the most powerful king in during the. In the 14th century, Kozhikode conquered large parts of central Kerala, which was under the control of the king of. He was forced to shift his capital (c. AD 1405) further south.

In the 15th century, Kochi was reduced in to a vassal state of Kozhikode. Colonial period [ ]. Main article: The two independent kingdoms of and joined the after India gained independence in 1947. On 1 July 1949, the two states were merged to form. On 1 January 1950, Travancore-Cochin was recognised as a state. The was reorganised to form in 1947.

On 1 November 1956, the state of Kerala was formed by the merging the Malabar district, Travancore-Cochin (excluding four southern, which were merged with Tamil Nadu), and the taluk of,. In 1957, elections for the new Kerala Legislative Assembly were held, and a reformist, -led government came to power, under. It was the first time a Communist government was democratically elected to power anywhere in the world. It initiated pioneering, leading to lowest levels of rural poverty in India. Liberation struggle [ ] It refused to nationalise the large estates but did provide reforms to protect manual labourers and farm workers, and invited capitalists to set up industry.

Much more controversial was an effort to impose state control on private schools, such as those run by the Christians and the Nairs, which enrolled 40% of the students. The Christians, the land owning communities of Nairs and Namputhiris and the Congress Party protested, with demonstrations numbering in the tens and hundreds of thousands of people. The government controlled the police, which made 150,000 arrests (often the same people arrested time and again), and used 248 lathi charges to beat back the demonstrators, killing twenty. The opposition called on Prime Minister to seize control of the state government.

Nehru was reluctant but when his daughter, the national head of the Congress Party, joined in, he finally did so. New elections in 1959 cost the Communists most of their seats and Congress resumed control.

Coalition politics [ ]. See also: and Later in 1967-82 Kerala elected a series of leftist coalition governments; the most stable was that led by Achutha Menon from 1969 to 1977. From 1967 to 1970, Kunnikkal Narayanan led a movement in Kerala.

The theoretical difference in the communist party, i.e. CPM is the part of the uprising of Naxalbari movement in Bengal which leads to the formation of CPI(ML) in India.Due to the several difference in the ideological level the CPI-ML split into several groups. Some are come to the democratic way and some to the extreme, anarchic way. The violence alienated public opinion. The political alliance have strongly stabilised in such a manner that, with rare exceptions, most of the coalition partners stick their loyalty to the alliance. As a result, to this, ever since 1979, the power has been clearly alternating between these two fronts without any change. Politics in Kerala is characterised by continually shifting alliances, party mergers and splits, factionalism within the coalitions and within political parties, and numerous splinter groups.

Modern politics in Kerala is dominated by two political fronts: the -led (LDF) and the -led (UDF) since the late 1970s. These two parties have alternating in power since 1982. Most of the major political parties in Kerala, except for Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP), belong to one or the other of these two alliances, often shifting allegiances a number of time. According to, the LDF has a majority in the seats (91/140) See also [ ] • • • • References [ ].